Literature Review #4

Through the Liminal: A Comparative Analysis of Communitas and Rites of Passage in Sport Hazing and Initiations by Jay Johnson

1. Visual

This article is from the Canadian Journal of Sociology, I couldn't find a picture of the author or anything else relevant.

2. Citation
Johnson, Jay. “Through the Liminal: A Comparative Analysis of Communitas and Rites of Passage in Sport Hazing and Initiations." Canadian Journal of Sociology. Canadian Journal of Sociology, 22 June 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2017.
3. Summary
This paper focuses on sports hazing and initiation. It explains that even though ritual and ceremonies have existed in many types of organizations including greek life, military, and private schools, student athletes usually endure different types of hazing. Regardless there is still a similar characteristic of this "rite of passage" gateways and metamorphosis form pledge to member.

4. Author
I have researched a lot on Jay Johnson and I can't find anything about him since it's such a common name. (will update as soon as I find something relevant)

5. Key Terms
Liminality- comes from the Latin word limens (threshold). "It is when you are between your old comfort zone and any possible new answer."

Communitas- can be defined as either a characteristic of people experiencing liminality together or to an unstructured community in which people are equal, or to the very spirit of community.

6. Quotes
"I argue that varsity sports initiation ceremonies and initiation rituals of other, more ancient cultures are more constructed and function in similar ways and articulate the foal of communitas as defined by Turner. However sports initiations that rely upon practices of personal humiliation, degradation and sexual acts actually prevent the expression of true communitas."

"In general, a common conclusion drawn is that hazing amount men is more likely to be violent in nature and hazing among women is more likely to be psychological/emotional in nature, although this demographic is in flux..."

7.Value
This paper will help me to explain ritual and the rites of passage in sports since I have already done so with black lettered greek fraternities and sororities from my other literature reviews. The point of including this piece is to give a little background when explaining the similarities and differences between the types of hazing but that they all always link back to the common theme of respected rituals and repetition.

Research Blog #9

Argument and Counter-Argument (need to elaborate)

Research Question: What about rituals makes students more willing to endure torture than they usually would when it comes to hazing? Why do these rites of passage usually include heavy and unsafe drinking as a rite of passage for acceptance into an organization?

The hierarchal cycle of revenge that members of an organization unknowingly participate in, paired with new member’s natural human want for acceptance allows hazing to get to torturous levels.
These rituals, that hold historical value for organizations and serve as important rites of passage, will never cease to exist as long as the repetition of these acts are this valued.

Basically, my argument is that because ritual persists, it allows hazing to continue to exist. Ritual is so respected and sought after that pledges value it and yearn for it.

Literature Review #5

The Historical Significance of Sacrificial Ritual: Understanding Violence in the Modern Black Fraternity Pledge Process by Ricky L. Jones

1. Visual

Author: Ricky L. Jones

2. Citation


Jones, Ricky L. “The Historical Significance of Sacrificial Ritual: Understanding Violence in the Modern Black Fraternity Pledge Process.” Western Journal of Black Studies; Vol. 24 Issue 2, June 2000. Journal.

3. Summary

This paper basically talks about looking at brutal hazing in black lettered greek fraternities in a different light to be able to understand why this brutality takes place. It focuses on the fact that modern pledge is an operation of historical social import as well as a powerful aspect of modern black fraternity life rather than the idea that black men just wish to impose violent behavior on upon one another as an activity. 

4. Author

Ricky L. Jones is a professor at the University of Louisville and his studies include African American politics and leadership, violence and resistance. He was only the second African American to receive a Ph.D. in Political Science from the University of Kentucky. His studies are relevant to my research on why African American haze in greek life is so much more brutal and how ritual takes apart in the student's endurance.

5. Key Terms

BGL's (black lettered greek fraternities)- I did not know that black fraternities coined their own term and that is was such a widely used concept before I conducted all of this research on it. 

neophyte- a person who is new to a subject, skill, or belief. This term was referred to a lot in the paper because that's what they used to describe what in modern day would be called a pledge, but in ancient times was more related to religions, cults or other ancestor's organizations. 

6. Quotes

they "would regard the human body as a prison house of the soul that could be liberated from its bodily impediments with discipline." 

"Modern fraternity initiation rituals are not different from ancient ones in that they also seek to maintain some form of stability within organizations. They are not unique, but synthesis of materials from a number of sources including: historical rituals form other civilizations."

"The fraternal pledge process, however, is unique in two ways. First, it stands alone as the ritual perceived by many fraternity men as mandatory. There exists the belief that if the pledge process is tampered with too extensively or eradicated, the very fabric of the organization will most certainly unravel..."

7. Value

This piece has helped me make sense of my case of the film Burning Sands. In this film, the boys pledging are beaten and emotionally abused but yet still see this as a rite of passage into man hood and of being accepted into the highly respected organization. In this article, Jones explains ancestors of black communities "would regard the human body as a prison house of the soul that could be liberated from its bodily impediments with discipline." This would advance a man from being a level of mortal to that of a God. This helps explain the brutality related to hazing in the black community. 

Research Blog #8

Case: Burning Sands Film
Video Clip

Summary:
This film, although fiction, depicts real life scenarios from fraternity pledging at an all black university. The director, Gerard McMurray, was himself in a fraternity and felt that this film had to be made and the severity of its violence would impact a lot of people. The film takes you through a week of pledging for the new members of one of the most known to underground haze fraternity at the university. The "rites of passage" are demonstrated so well in this film because there are brutal and emotional damaging things the boys have to do to prove themselves worthy. The brothers constantly make them buy copious amounts of food for them, be on call for any errand they wish, buy them alcohol, yell at them, call them degrading names, beat them, and tell them how unworthy they are to be here. This case will help to illustrate my frame of ritual as repetition and the reasoning behind why these boys allow this brutality to occur. The repetition of ritual and the fact that each senior member in the organization has already gone through it is what makes the brothers more enduring. There is a point in the film where one of the pledges explains that going through this means they will finally be men once initiation occurs and that all of the torture will be "worth it." The writing I've been using to link it to my frame and theory is The Historical Significance of Sacrificial Ritual: Understanding Violence in the Modern Black Fraternity Pledge Process where the author speaks a lot about the historical factor of African American ancestors attributing to why black haze is so brutal.

Research Blog #7

Frame
To answer my research questions (what about rituals makes students more willing to endure torture than they usually would when it comes to hazing? and why do these rites of passage usually include heavy and unsafe drinking as a rite of passage for acceptance into an organization?) I developed my frame around the repetition of ritual. Ritual is defined as ceremony consisting of a series of actions performed according to a prescribed order. They are meant to be strange and different or else they would not be considered a ritual. This idea of ritual as a rite of passage discussed in Through the Liminal: A comparative Analysis of Communities and Rites of Passage in Sport Hazing and Initiation has existed as far back as people can remember. This deep rooted respect for ritual in an organization is what allows hazing to become so brutal- new members are told this is what happens to everyone, and they in turn end up doing it to others. The cycle of ritual exists in not only the greek community but also sports teams and black lettered greek fraternities. In The Historical Significance of Sacrificial Ritual: Understanding Violence in the Modern Black Fraternity Pledge Process, Jones discusses how black lettered greek fraternities are known to be way more violent in the pledge process among brothers. The case I have from Burning Sands depicts some of these violent scenes accurately. Jones also explained that black communities have ben trying to figure out why their rituals are known to be so much more violent than other organizations. He says that their ancestors "regard the human body as a prison house of the soul that could be liberated from its bodily impediments with discipline. Rituals would advance him from being the level of mortal to that of a God." The pledging process, hierarchy of seniors, and initiation contribute to the psychological importance of conducting rituals to the individual and organization.

Research Blog #6

Visuals



This is a picture I found that I think really captures the history of ritual. This picture was taken in Mexico of the Mayans practicing one of their sacred rituals. This will help me demonstrate how important people find their rituals to be because of their historical significance within their organization. 


I kept this visual light and kind of humorous because it's from the show Scream Queens that mocks greek life. The show captures the rituals of one of the top tier sororities on campus and although it is over the top with its details about greek life, it does a really good job of capturing sororities emotional brutality towards new members.





This is a picture of a clip from the film Burning Sands that I spoke about in my presentation. The film will help me to explain how different African American Greek life is with hazing types, but how similar it is when it comes to rituals. Every organization has their own rituals that they value which is what allows hazing to become so brutal. 

Undergraduate Research Writing Conference

On Wednesday, I attended the undergraduate research writing conference at the Livingston Student Center and actually learned a lot more than I originally thought I would. The session I attended went from 1:40-3:00 and I chose room 201A where 4 undergraduate speakers presented their topics.
The speaker who stood out to me the most was the first one, Karina Pedetti. Her topic was "The Funny Thing About Depression: Using Humor to Cope." This intrigued me because to the average person, the topic of depression is in fact not funny. However, her point was that society censors both humor and depression. Each emotion is used as a coping mechanism for very strong feelings. Her presentation made me think a lot about mine in the sense of connections I should be making within my research question.

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Research Blog #4

Research Proposal

Working Title: Alcoholic Hazing Persists Despite Known Risks

Topic

I am going to explore the rituals and hazing tendencies of sororities and fraternities, which has become extremely popular in the modern college generation. My paper will focus a lot on alcoholic rituals and why certain rites of passage allow for greater acceptance from peers in a greek organization. I will also touch on the fact that this acceptance is a main reason that student’s can endure so much, having it alter their perception of hazing boundaries and what can ultimately hurt them just for approval.

Research Question

What psychological reason is behind the amount of hazing college students accept as a normal amount to endure and why do their peers set this as the rite of passage into an organization?

Do the heavy and unsafe drinking habits of these rituals stem from a goal of pure fun or torture among peers?

Theoretical Frame

Looking into how environmental factors and individual differences such as alcohol sensitivity contribute to alcohol involvement in young adults will help me to explain my research question and development a theoretical answer. I will be looking into in depth research on the relationship between factors of alcohol sensitivity, age group, amount of involvement in greek life all compared to amount of alcohol they typically consume from the article from "Health Psychology." This will help me to dive deeper into why greek life primarily always involves alcohol in their ritual processes even when they know it's detrimental.

Research and Plan

I plan to focus a lot of my research on the books Pledged by Alexandra Robbins and Inside Greek U.: Fraternities, Sororities, and the Pursuit of Pleasure, Power, and Prestige by Alan D. Desantis. Pledged is really going to help me dive into the sorority aspect of hazing and focus on how different it is from fraternity hazing, playing into my question of the questionable psychological state of college students when wanting to be accepted. Hazing among females as explained in these two books is much more mental and emotional. After explaining many real life examples, Robbins says “even more surprising was the fact that these abuses were inflicted and endured by intelligent, successful, and attractive young women.” I plan to use what the public thinks in modern day society about hazing from Death by Hazing: Should There Be A Federal Law Against Fraternity and Sorority Hazing?, by Devon M. Alvarez. To contrast explaining the mentality women have when hazing others or enduring hazing, I am going to use examples from The Dark Power of Fraternities, by Caitlin Flanagan because it truly shows the difference of severe alcohol abuse in a different way. Finally, to compare all greek life organizations and their constant theme of alcohol, I found some really interesting analysis of binge drinking and its effects on men and women in An Examination of Drunkorexia, Greek Affiliation, and Alcohol Consumption, by Rosie Marie Ward, Marina Galante, Rudra Trivedi, and Juliana Kahrs. Drunkorexia is a term the authors use referring to a behavioral pattern that involves starving oneself during the day, binge drinking later in the day, and then binge eating junk food after drinking. It is a combination of eating disorders, such as anorexia, with binge drinking.

Working Bibliography
Bartholow, Bruce D., Sher, Kenneth, Krull, Jennifer. HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY; Changes in Heavy 

Drinking Over the Third Decade of Life as a Function of Collegiate Fraternity and Sorority

Involvement: A Prospective, Multilevel Analysis. (NOV, 2003) 22 6, pages 616-p626, 11p. 

Biddix, J. Patrick, Malinda M. Matney, Eric M. Norman, and Georgianna L. Martin. The influence of fraternity and sorority involvement: a critical analysis of research (1996-2013). San Francisco, CA: Wiley Subscription Services, Inc., A Wiley Company, at Jossey-Bass, 2014. Print.


Callais, Mari Ann. "Helping Fraternity and Sorority Members Understand Ritual." Oracle: The 

Research Journal of the Association of Fraternity/Sorority Advisors, vol. 1, no. 1, Aug. 2005, pp. 32-

37. EBSCOhost, login.proxy.libraries.rutgers.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?

direct=true&db=aph&AN=89964854&site=eds-live.

DeSantis, Alan D. Inside Greek U.: Fraternities, Sororities, and the Pursuit of Pleasure, Power, and 
Prestige. Lexington: U Press of Kentucky, 2007. Print.

Robbins, Alexandra. Pledged: The Secret Life of Sororities. New York: Hachette , 2015. Print.

Literature Review #3

1. Visual: Bruce Bartholow, author

2. Citation of Article:

Bartholow, Bruce D.; Sher, Kenneth; Krull, Jennifer. HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY; NOV, 2003, 22 6, p616-p626, 11p. Changes in Heavy Drinking Over the Third Decade of Life as a Function of Collegiate Fraternity and Sorority Involvement: A Prospective, Multilevel Analysis.

(A reference from my last Literature Review, The influence of fraternity and sorority involvement: a critical analysis of research)

3. Summary
This article talks about fraternity and sorority drinking in correlation with the fact that even though being involved in greek life is a huge risk factor for heavy drinking, these researchers think that this may stop after the college years. Models for heavy drinking and its heath risks are discussed in the article along with the fact that heavy drinking percentages of age groups drops off after 30, which intrigues these researchers. 

4. Authors

Bruce Bartholow has done a lot of relevant work related to aspects of social cognition relating to alcohol involvement and how environmental factors and individual differences such as alcohol sensitivity contribute to alcohol involvement in young adults. 

Kenneth Sher is a professor that studies substance use disorders (particularly alcohol dependence) across the life span of college students. He is a director  of the Alcohol, Health, and Behavior Project a high-risk, prospective study of a cohort of college students and alcohol.

Jennifer Krull's research is primarily focused on the development, application, and extension of multilevel random coefficient models in the social sciences. She helped to study the models of exactly why certain people have different effects to social involvement with alcohol.

5. Key Terms

Maturing Out- a term used to describe a pattern that shows alcohol use generally tends to increase during late adolescence, peak during the early twenties, and decline thereafter.

emerging adulthood- defined as the period following adolescence and preceding later adulthood, between approximately ages 18 and 25, distinguished by relative independence both from adult social roles and responsibilities and from the societal norms related to career and family faced by individuals in later young adulthood. This time period is also characterized by increased alcohol use.

6. Quotes

"Findings indicated that although Greek members consistently drank more heavily during college, collegiate Greek status did not predict postcollege levels of heavy drinking (after controlling for freshman year heavy drinking levels). Sher interpreted these findings as evidence that the social environment plays a key role in determining heavy drinking among Greek members."

"If, as we have argued, the central issues in determining heavy drinking among those in the Greek system are socialization factors, then those who spend the most time in and are most involved with the social environment of the Greek house should be more strongly influenced by those factors than those who are less involved. To the extent that Greek involvement serves as a risk factor for heavy drinking, increased exposure might be associated with increased risk."

"Theories related to the development of alcohol and other drug use throughout adolescence and emerging adulthood provide several plausible explanations for the changing heavy drinking trajectories noted here. For example, when viewed from a social control theory perspective (e.g., Shoemaker, 1990), the most important determinants of heavy drinking are environmental or structural influences such as neighborhoods, family structure, and the availability of alcohol."

7. Value

This article adds value to my research because of the amount of models and the comparisons it gives. The authors provide in depth research on the relationship between factors of alcohol sensitivity, age group, amount of involvement in greek life all compared to amount of alcohol they typically consumer. This will help me to dive deeper into why greek life primarily always involves alcohol in their ritual processes even when they know it's detrimental. 

Research Blog #5

Working Bibliography
Bartholow, Bruce D., Sher, Kenneth, Krull, Jennifer. HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY; Changes in Heavy 

Drinking Over the Third Decade of Life as a Function of Collegiate Fraternity and Sorority

Involvement: A Prospective, Multilevel Analysis. (NOV, 2003) 22 6, pages 616-p626, 11p. 

Biddix, J. Patrick, Malinda M. Matney, Eric M. Norman, and Georgianna L. Martin. The influence of fraternity and sorority involvement: a critical analysis of research (1996-2013). San Francisco, CA: Wiley Subscription Services, Inc., A Wiley Company, at Jossey-Bass, 2014. Print.


Callais, Mari Ann. "Helping Fraternity and Sorority Members Understand Ritual." Oracle: The 

Research Journal of the Association of Fraternity/Sorority Advisors, vol. 1, no. 1, Aug. 2005, pp. 32-

37. EBSCOhost, login.proxy.libraries.rutgers.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?

direct=true&db=aph&AN=89964854&site=eds-live.

DeSantis, Alan D. Inside Greek U.: Fraternities, Sororities, and the Pursuit of Pleasure, Power, and 
Prestige. Lexington: U Press of Kentucky, 2007. Print.

Robbins, Alexandra. Pledged: The Secret Life of Sororities. New York: Hachette , 2015. Print.

Literature Review #2

1. Visual

2. Citation

Biddix, J. Patrick, Malinda M. Matney, Eric M. Norman, and Georgianna L. Martin. The influence of fraternity and sorority involvement: a critical analysis of research (1996-2013). San Francisco, CA: Wiley Subscription Services, Inc., A Wiley Company, at Jossey-Bass, 2014. Print.

3. Summary
This book is all about the positive and negative influences of student involvement in sorority and fraternity organizations. The analysis includes advocates of isolated cases that counter the considerable amount of evidence that membership into these organizations is actually detrimental to a students future. The continued and reoccurring cases in the book highlight the argument that a person's opinion on greek life depends heavily on personal involvement in it and prior knowledge.

4. Authors
The first author listed, Biddex J. Patrick, is an associate Professor of higher education in the department of educational leadership and policies studies at the University of Tennessee. His studies include college student involvement outcomes which is directly related to this book. He has a lot of prior knowledge about not only college students but what their personal involvement in college can do for their future.
One other author, Malinda M. Matney, is a senior research associate for the division of student affairs at the University of Michigan. Her studies widely are focused on the students at the university.

5. Key Terms
heavy episodic drinking- the book emphasizes how important this term is to understand when researching in particular about college students use of alcohol when involvement with sorority and fraternity organizations. It is the consumption of alcohol five or more times in a row in a two week period.
binge drinking- the consumption of five or more drinks in a row for men and four or more drinks for women in a single sitting.

6. Quotes
"The researchers found fraternity/sorority membership was associated with higher odds of drinking problems, alcohol related harms, or secondhand effects." (Page 20)

"...Weschler drew three conclusions. First, fraternity and sorority housing environment appeared tolerant of hazardous alcohol use and associated behaviors. Second, efforts to reduce hazardous alcohol use on campus, such as campus regulations and educational programs, do not seem to affect fraternity and sorority members...." (Page 15)

"Third, the researchers found little evidence to suggest campus officials held fraternity members specifically accountable for their behaviors, though there was no empirical basis for this conclusion." (Page 15)

7. Value
This reading helps me explore my research question more in the aspect of heavy drinking and why college students continue to participate in greek life if that's what its proven to be surrounded by and if the research done is so detrimental to their past colleagues. The analysis this book gives will provide me with the reasons I need to be able to explain the connection between alcohol and greek life.

Literature Review #1

1. Visual

2. Citation

Robbins, Alexandra. Pledged: The Secret Life of Sororities. New York: Hachette , 2015. Print.

3. Summary

The author, Alexandra Robbins, spent a year with a group of girls in a "known" sorority so uncover whether or not the stereotypes about sorority girls were true or not. The expected behavior of a sorority girl involving drugs, hazing, promiscuity, racism, violence, and eating disorders were all validated during her time spent with the girls. The part that intrigued Robbins was that all of these things were done by intelligent, and attractive young girls that had so many other options.

4. Author: Alexandra Robbins

The author of Pledged graduated from Yale University with high honors which makes her already have first-hand knowledge on college life regardless of Yale's greek life scene. However, she was a member of a secret Yale club called Scroll and Key. She is a reporter and likes writing about controversial topics like revealing President Bush's unimpressive college grades.

5. Key terms

"Rituals"- the book explains rituals in greek organizations as "ceremonies only to be shared with other [organization members] as a sign of your loyalty to the Fraternity, that you treat these things with confidentiality as well as respect. In turn you will find your entire lifetime fraternity experience and accompanying friendships take on deeper and more beautiful meaning when you know they are shared only with those who bear the name of [organization].

"Sisterhood without the Sorority"- a sorority girl in the book explains her experience with greek life as positive with also aspects of "a thing where you have a lot of people there for you only superficially. I don't think people really care about each other wholeheartedly or make an effort to be sisters."

6. Quotes

"Fraternity and sorority house environments appear to tolerate hazardous use of alcohol and other irresponsible behaviors... this directly contradicts the claim that the members of fraternities and sororities that belong to a notional organization exhibit more responsible behavior thangroups that are not affiliated with such organizations." (Robbins 137)

"For some girls, the sorority experience involved a constant struggle to keep up with the trends and attitudes dictated by particular cliques within the sorority. Belonging to a house offers a sister permanent affiliations, but it doesn't signify unconditional acceptance." (Robbins 115)

"In some houses, pledges can also generally be 'on call' nearly every night of the pledge period. This means sitting by their phone in case a sorority sister wants something- for example, a slurpee 3 a.m., a ride, her dishes washed or her room cleaned- or a spontaneous activity is about to start: 'Find a dress and a date and be at the house in thirty minutes." (Robbins 256)

7. Value

This book is going to help me explore my research question of why greek life rituals always seem to involve alcohol and the reason students endure so much with hazing for acceptance among peers because Pledged really dives into the ins and outs of sorority life. Since the author is literally spending a year with a typical sorority her book really gives true insight to what hazing is like and the mindset of these girls, helping me explain the psychological reasoning behind hazing.

Research Blog #3

Three academic sources:

1. The Influence of Fraternity and Sorority Involvement: A Critical Analysis of Research (1996-2013), by J. Patrick Biddix, Malinda M. Matney, and Eric M. Norman. (From Research Blog #2)
2. An Examination of Drunkorexia, Greek Affiliation, and Alcohol Consumption, by Rosie Marie Ward, Marina Galante, Rudra Trivedi, and Juliana Kahrs.
3. Death by Hazing: Should There Be A Federal Law Against Fraternity and Sorority Hazing?, by Devon M. Alvarez
4. The Dark Power of Fraternities, by Caitlin Flanagan

I have read through some of each of these sources that I found through the Rutgers library online site. I think each source I've listed is really going to help me focus on my now narrowing topic of hazing in Greek life and it's relation to alcohol. A similar theme in each one of these sources seems to be that no matter the hazing or claimed "ritual" a greek organization has, it almost certainly involves alcohol every single time. 

Research Blog #2

My vague topic idea of Greek life (mainly sorority life) hasn't changed much since blog #1. However, after doing a little research I've realized that since I know a little less about fraternity culture, hazing among boys and the reasons for it, I want to add in the fraternity aspect. Hazing is so big in the media right now and it intrigues most who it doesn't affect because it is so hard for those not involved to understand why student's would take on so much torture to be apart of something that is ultimately hurting them and their future in college. 
One reading that I've really enjoyed learning more about hazing from is The Influence of Fraternity and Sorority Involvement: A Critical Analysis of Research (1996-2013), by J. Patrick Biddix, Malinda M. Matney, and Eric M. Norman. After describing a fraternity hazing scene right before initiation of the brother's that involved making them all strip naked, the authors describing hazing rituals as ranging from "ridiculous to truly criminal, occasionally becoming lethal as well." It is then explained that even though college years are supposed to bet the best of your life, this lethal fun is truly just a need for validation among your peers that's just plain cruel behavior.
When researching online for possible contrary beliefs to the cruelness of hazing and its detrimental effects I found an article by the Livingston Country News called Greek Life Can Have Community Benefits. This intrigued me because it actually involved Rutgers Greek community. However, they speak about the "highly valued volunteer events run by individual organizations." These events are backed locally and a lot of them give back to the community with monetary rewards following. It's interesting to see the community arguing that this may somehow balance all the bad PR that greek life gets.

Research Blog #1

The topic I am considering for the class project is going to be focused mainly on sorority life at college. I am familiar and interested in this topic because I am involved with greek life at Rutgers. I would be open to including fraternities in my project if it doesn't make it end up being too broad. There is a negative stereotype in the media more so in the past few years about greek life more than ever. I would like to analyze this, what makes sorority life so appealing to girls, and what makes hazing so popular to some fraternities and sororities.